As with any medication or consumable product, edibles do have a shelf-life that can be affected by a range of external factors. It’s important to be aware of these factors, as they can have a direct impact on the efficacy and potency of your medication. 

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While edibles do expire, how long they take to expire will depend on several factors, such as ingredients, how they’re produced, and how they’re stored.  

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Let’s get started. 

What are Medicinal Cannabis Edibles? 

Edibles (sometimes known as gummies or pastilles) are a format of medicinal cannabis that are consumed orally via the ingestion method. They’ll often look and feel like candy-like gummies or vitamin gummies. They are an effective alternative for individuals looking for a slow-release medication, or those who prefer ingesting their medication as opposed to inhaling it. 

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When medicinal cannabis is ingested, the cannabinoids are absorbed through the body’s digestive system and gastrointestinal tract before it finally metabolises in the liver. While the onset of effects is slower when consumed orally, they are also reported to last longer when compared to inhalation methods.

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Pros of Ingesting Medicinal Cannabis 

• Ability to manage dosage in precise measurements 
• Can be consumed discreetly 
• No risk to lungs or lung health 
• Longer lasting effects (4 – 12 hours) 
• Ease of administration which can be helpful for patients with mobility issues

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Cons of Ingesting Medicinal Cannabis 

• Longer onset to feel the full effects 
• May be difficult for patients who experience difficulties with swallowing 

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A 2022 study found that 72% of medicinal cannabis patients in Australia prefer oral consumption, making it the most common method for medicinal cannabis consumption. Despite this, there are limited edible medicinal cannabis treatments currently available in Australia at the time this article was posted.  

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If you’re interested in exploring edibles as a potential option in your treatment plan, we recommend booking an appointment with a medicinal cannabis clinic or speaking with your doctor to assess your condition. 

Factors That Affect the Shelf-Life of Medicinal Cannabis Edible Gummies 

When stored properly, medicinal cannabis edibles can last anywhere from 3 -12 months. In Australia, the individual medication will have an expiry date indicated on the packaging. This can be based on a variety of factors:

Ingredients

Even though studies have shown that medicinal cannabis has both antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, the other ingredients that are commonly found in medicinal cannabis edibles (such as oils, sugars, and flavourings) don’t always share these same properties. The quality and freshness of the food-grade ingredients can play a significant role in impacting and determining the shelf-life of edibles. 

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As with food in the fridge and pantry, organic ingredients will typically have a shorter shelf-life when compared to preservatives and synthetic additives. Over time, the efficacy and potency of your medicinal cannabis can also be affected, so it’s important that you consume your medication within its recommended use-by date. 

Production and Manufacturing 

The production methods that are practised by the manufacturers can also play a significant role in the longevity of the edibles. 

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Some manufacturing factors that can impact the overall quality and shelf-life of edibles include: 

• Proper mixing techniques 
• Temperature control 
• Hygienic practices 

Packaging Procedures 

Similar to other foods and beverages, ensuring effective packaging and sealing is essential for preserving the freshness and potency of edibles. 

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Blister packs and air-tight packaging are one way that manufacturers can help to prevent moisture absorption and exposure to oxygen – both of which are factors that can decrease the shelf-life of edibles. 

Additional Environmental Factors 

External factors such as humidity, exposure to sunlight, and drastic changes in temperature can also affect the shelf-life of edibles, so ensuring you practise proper storage methods is crucial (more on this below). 

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Storing your edibles in a cool, dry, and dark place away from direct sunlight and moisture ensures that your medication maintains its quality and efficacy over time, allowing you to reap the greatest therapeutic benefits. 

How to Store Medicinal Cannabis Edibles

To ensure the maximum therapeutic benefits of your medication, we recommend taking the following factors into consideration when storing your edibles: 

• Temperature
• Exposure to heat and light 
• Packaging and containers 

Temperature-Controlled Environment 

As with any medication, we recommend storing your edibles in a cool, dry place, away from any direct sunlight or heat sources (such as stovetops, microwaves, or heaters). 

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The optimal storage temperature for edibles ranges from 15 – 25°C. 

Heat and Light Exposure 

Exposure to both heat and light can degrade the efficacy of the medicinal cannabis extract and accelerate the breakdown of ingredients such as sugars and oils in the edibles. High levels of humidity can also promote the growth of mould and other bacteria, which can cause your edibles to lose their integrity. 

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We recommend keeping your edibles in their original packaging unless transferring them to a light-proof container to minimise exposure to light, and storing them in a cupboard away from windows and other heat sources. 

Packaging 

Exposure to air and light can lead to the degradation of your edibles, so ensuring that your medication is packaged and stored securely is crucial for maintaining its freshness and efficacy. 

How to Tell if Gummies Have Expired 

If you’ve had your medication for a while or have accidentally left it exposed to the elements, you may be wondering if you can easily determine if it has expired or not. If you find yourself in this situation, we recommend taking note of the following: 

Expiration Date

If you’re unsure whether or not your medication has expired, we recommend first confirming the expiration date. When in doubt, always check the packaging for a best-before or expiration date. 

Efficacy of the Ingredients

Over time, all medications can lose their potency and efficacy – including medicinal cannabis. If you notice a decline in the potency of your medication, this could be an indication that the product is nearing expiration (even if it’s still within its use-by date). 

Physical Appearance 

Just like any other consumable product, medication also shows signs of ageing. Signs of expiration may include discolouration, mould, separation, crystallisation, or a change in the scent.  

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If you suspect your medication has expired, you will need to book a follow-up appointment with your prescribing doctor. Your doctor can help to write you a new, valid prescription, or explore other natural therapy options. 

The Bottom Line 

Just like any other food or medication, edibles expire. While medicinal cannabis edibles can typically remain fresh anywhere from 3-12 months, the type of medication you have been prescribed, and the way you store it, can have a huge impact on the efficacy and shelf-life of the medication. 

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By following proper storage recommendations and avoiding exposure to direct sunlight and air, you can help ensure that you get the most out of your medication’s shelf life. 

Edibles FAQ: 

How Long Do Edible Gummies Stay in Your System?  

While the effects of ingesting medicinal cannabis edibles can take anywhere from 30 - 90 minutes to kick in, research has found that these same effects can last for 6+ hours, with the strongest effects occurring approximately 3 hours after ingestion. 

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It is important to note that even after the effects have worn off, THC and CBD may still be detected in your system. How long THC and CBD can be detected in your system is affected by the following two factors: 

1. The dosage amount of medicinal cannabis 
2. An individual’s metabolism 

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Because everyone’s metabolism is different, and because dosage differs depending on the person, there is no one answer that determines how long cannabis will stay in your system. 

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However, studies have found that frequent medicinal cannabis consumption and higher doses of medicinal cannabis can lead to longer detection times. In various drug tests (including saliva, urine, and blood), cannabis may be detected in an individual’s system for up to 90 days. 

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At the time of writing, driving with any amount of THC in your system is illegal in all Australian states and territories, except Tasmania. Because of this, it’s important that you understand how long cannabis can be detected in your system if you’re a medicinal cannabis patient who plans on driving. 

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For more information on how long cannabis stays in your system, read our article here. 

Can You Eat Edibles That Have Gone Bad? 

We strongly advise against consuming medicinal cannabis edibles that have expired. Consuming an expired edible means that your medication may no longer carry its desired therapeutic benefits. 

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Edibles that have expired as a result of poor storage conditions and exposure to air and sun may also carry significant health risks, including food poisoning. 

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If you’re unsure whether your edibles are still safe for consumption or not, we recommend booking an appointment with your doctor to discuss next steps.

Cannabidiol oil, also referred to CBD oil, is a derivative of the cannabis plant that has grown in popularity in recent years, With an array of potential therapeutic health benefits, and an ever-growing availability of CBD-infused products in Australia, understanding the effects of CBD oil is essential – whether you’re just starting your natural therapy journey, or are an existing medicinal cannabis patient.  

Let’s get started. 

What is CBD? 

CBD (or cannabidiol) is a naturally occurring cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant. Cannabinoids are the chemical compounds found in the cannabis plant among terpenes – the compounds responsible for giving cannabis its unique aroma and flavour, flavonoids, fatty acids, and more. 

Unlike THC, CBD is a non-psychotropic cannabinoid, meaning it does not provide patients with the “high” that is commonly associated with THC. Many people describe CBD as also being a non-psychoactive treatment, however, this can be misleading as  CBD has still been shown to carry some psychoactive properties, just different to THC. 

What is CBD Oil? 

CBD oil is created when cannabidiol is extracted from the cannabis or hemp plants. This results in an oil that contains high levels of CBD and varying levels of THC and other plant compounds. 

With countless CBD oil products now available on the Australian market, it’s important to identify and establish your needs with your doctor, to ensure that your prescribed medication can adequately help you manage your symptoms and condition. 

There are three different types of CBD oil, including: 

• CBD Isolate 
• Broad Spectrum CBD
• Full Spectrum CBD 

CBD Isolate 

CBD Isolate does not contain any other cannabinoids that are present in the cannabis plant, such as terpenes, flavonoids, and fatty acids. Because of this, it is considered to be the purest form of CBD. 

Full-Spectrum CBD 

Full-spectrum CBD is created by using the entire plant extract, and as such, contains all naturally occurring cannabinoids, terpenes, and other compounds that are found in the cannabis plant. While this can include trace amounts of THC, is is unlikely to produce any psychoactive effects. 

Broad-Spectrum CBD 

Similar to full-spectrum CBD, broad-spectrum CBD also contains cannabinoids other than just CBD. Unlike full-spectrum CBD however, broad-spectrum CBD has all trace amounts of THC removed. This means that patients who are prescribed this type of CBD oil can reap the benefits of a range of cannabinoids and terpenes, without experiencing the psychotropic effects of THC. 

To determine which type of CBD Oil is best suited to you and your lifestyle, we recommend speaking to an expert in medicinal cannabis and natural therapies. 

What Are the Potential Therapeutic Benefits of CBD Oil? 

As a result of its many potential therapeutic benefits and its non-psychotropic properties, CBD may be beneficial for some patients who are seeking to reap the benefits of medicinal cannabis without the euphoric effects or “high” that are associated with THC-based treatments. 

CBD is considered to be non-impairing because it works with the body’s dopamine, opioid, and serotonin receptors, instead of binding with the body’s CB1 receptor – which is responsible for creating the sensation of feeling high. 

While research has shown that CBD may assist some patients in reducing depression, vomiting, and nausea, it is more commonly prescribed to patients who are seeking relief from inflammation and pain. CBD oil may also help some patients who experience difficulties with sleep, are experiencing symptoms associated with depression and anxiety, mood swings or a lack of appetite 

What Are the Side Effects of CBD Oil? 

While CBD oil is considered to be generally safe, as always, it’s important to weigh up any potential risks and side effects in consultation with your prescribing doctor. 

Some of the adverse reactions and side effects that some patients may experience when using a CBD oil treatment may include: 

• Weight fluctuations 
• Diarrhoea 
• Fatigue 
• Pneumonia
• Changes to appetite 
• Nausea
• Drowsiness and sedation
• Irritability

One clinical trial conducted in 2017 to review the effects of CBD oil for drug-resistant seizures found that participants experienced:  

• Nausea and vomiting 
• Fever
• Diarrhoea 
• Exhaustion
• Fatigue 
• Abnormal results on liver-function test 

If you’re taking any other prescribed medications, it’s important to note that CBD oil has the potential to react with other medications. For this reason, we recommend speaking with your prescribing doctor, or a doctor who specialises in the prescription of medicinal cannabis, to discuss the right dosage for you and to appropriately gauge your risk-level for experiencing potential side effects. 

Is CBD Oil Legal? 

Just like any other medicinal cannabis product, as of 2016 CBD oil is legal to access in Australia with a valid prescription from a healthcare professional. 

Because of the growing popularity of CBD oil, it has quickly become one of the most sought-after medicinal cannabis products in Australia. However, as the interest in CBD oil continues to grow, unfortunately so does the rise of unregulated products. 

With the lack of clarity surrounding the laws and journeys to purchasing legal, regulated CBD oil in Australia, many individuals seeking to reap the potential therapeutic benefits of this non-psychotropic compound have turned to other avenues to access their medication. 

With an array of unregulated CBD oil products now circulating the internet and claiming to assist with and cure a plethora of illnesses and diseases, many Australians are choosing to access their medication this way. Whether you’re aware of the legal implications or not, at the time of writing, buying any product that contains CBD without a prescription is illegal in Australia.

At the time of writing, it is legal to purchase low-dose CBD products (containing less than 150 mg of CBD per day) over the counter. This is a result of the TGA down-scheduling CBD from a Schedule 4 prescription-only medication to now a Schedule 3 pharmacist-only medication. 

Despite this change, so far no products containing CBD have been approved by the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) – which is required before pharmacists can sell the product. 

As with any treatment option, the only way to ensure you are receiving what you need in terms of quality and effectiveness is to speak with a medical professional who has extensive experience in natural therapies and the prescription of medicinal cannabis. 

The only legal way to purchase and consume medicinal cannabis treatment in the form of CBD oil in Australia is with a valid prescription. For more information on the legal and illegal cannabis landscape in Australia, read our article here.  

How is CBD Oil Consumed? 

How an individual consumes CBD oil will depend largely on what the medication is being used to treat, and what consumption method you’re most comfortable with. 

The most effective way to consume CBD oil is via the sublingual method. This allows the oil to absorb faster into the bloodstream via the sublingual glands found under the tongue. This method differs from purely ingesting CBD oil, where the medication travels through your gastrointestinal system, resulting in a much longer onset of effects. 

Before commencing any treatment, we recommend having a discussion with your doctor surrounding the various consumption methods to ensure that your chosen method aligns with your needs, experiences, and lifestyle. 

For more information on the various ways you can consume CBD oil, head over to our article on how medicinal cannabis can be consumed. 

The Wrap-Up 

CBD oil can be consumed in many different methods and may help to ease the symptoms of anxiety, pain and inflammation in some patients. Familiarising yourself with both the potential therapeutic benefits and possible side effects is crucial before beginning any medication. 

If you’re considering exploring CBD oil, we recommend always speaking to a trusted doctor who specialises in the prescription of medicinal cannabis to ensure that you receive the correct type and dosage for you and your lifestyle. 

With over 450 medicinal cannabis products available in Australia in 2023, whether you’re an experienced medicinal cannabis patient or completely new to this method of treatment, it can be difficult to wrap your head around all of the different medications available on the market.

When looking for a medicinal cannabis clinic or doctor, it’s important to know that some clinics or doctors only prescribe a limited range, or sometimes even a specific brand, of medications or medicinal cannabis products. When doctors have a choice over what medications they prescribe, it ensures that patients receive appropriate, unbiased, and effective treatments that are best suited to their needs and concerns. 

What Types of Medicinal Cannabis Products are Available in Australia? 

In Australia, the following types of medicinal cannabis products are currently available and permitted for prescription under the Therapeutic Goods Administration(TGA): 

Flower 

Dried medicinal cannabis flower is the most classic form of medicinal cannabis that is consumed via vaporisation – more on this below. 

Oils 

Medicinal Cannabis oils are liquid extracts that are derived from the cannabis plant. They can be ingested orally or sublingually. More information on the different ways to consume medicinal cannabis below. 

Wafers

Wafers are small tablet-like medications that are administered sublingually (dissolved under the tongue). 

Capsules 

Capsules are medicinal cannabis products that are enclosed in a capsule and designed to be consumed in oral dosage forms.

Topical Products 

Topical products such as creams and gels are products that are formulated with cannabinoids (such as CBD and THC) and are designed to be applied directly to the skin. 

Sprays

Sprays are another form of medicinal cannabis that are designed to be consumed orally. Sprays are intended to provide both precise and controlled dosing of medicinal cannabis. 

Vape Cartridges

Also known as vape carts, vape cartridges are pre-filled cartridges designed for use with a vape pen. 

How Do I Know What Medicinal Cannabis Product Is Right For Me? 

Because medicinal cannabis works differently for everyone and has different onset, reactions and response times for each individual, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. 

A doctor at a product-agnostic clinic will work closely with you, evaluating your condition and needs, to determine what medicinal cannabis product will be most effective for you. At a product-agnostic clinic, your doctor can prescribe any legal medications available in Australia for medical purposes.

What Are the Different Ways Medicinal Cannabis Treatments Can Be Administered? 

Medicinal cannabis can be delivered to the body in a number of different ways, depending on the individual needs of a patient. Each method will impact how the cannabis compounds are absorbed, distributed, and metabolised around the body differently. 

Five approved methods for consumption of medicinal cannabis in Australia include: 

Inhalation

Inhalation, including vaping, is the process of heating the cannabis plant at a high heat and allowing the cannabinoids and terpenes to be released in the form of a vapour, which is then inhaled. Smoking medical cannabis would also fall under this category, however smoking is not a recommended consumption method, more about that here.

Ingestion 

Ingestion involves the oral consumption of any medicinal cannabis treatment, such as edibles, tinctures, oils, capsules, and extracts. 

Sublingual 

The sublingual method involves placing the medicinal cannabis treatment, such as a wafer, lozenge, tablet, oil, or spray, under the tongue. This allows for the active ingredients to be absorbed directly into the vessels of your tongue and bypass the digestive system. 

Topical 

The topical application of medicinal cannabis involves directly applying the products directly to the skin. The topical method provides localised relief from inflammation, pain, skin irritations and more. It comes in a variety of forms, such as balms, lotions, creams, salves and patches. 

Suppositories 

Suppositories offer a targeted dose of cannabinoids to a localised area that can help to facilitate higher absorption rates in the body. For this method, medicinal cannabis is provided in a solid form and is inserted into either the rectum or vagina. 

To determine which method of consumption will be most appropriate for you and your therapeutic needs, it is important you have a discussion with a doctor who specialises in natural therapies and has a strong understanding of your condition and symptoms.

What Categories of Medicinal Cannabis Are Available in Australia? 

The TGA classifies medicinal cannabis into five different categories that look at the amount of cannabidiol (CBD) within the medicine. These different categories help to ensure that patients have access to appropriate treatments and that prescribing doctors can maintain appropriate safety and quality standards in their treatment plans. 

Doctors at product-agnostic clinics will have access to a range of medications across the categories to offer patients truly personalised and customisable care.

The five different categories are as follows:

Category 1: CBD Medicinal Cannabis Product (CBD >98%) 

Medicinal cannabis products included in Category 1 are Schedule 4 Prescription Only Medicine (aka Schedule 4 Poison). In order to obtain a Schedule 4 Prescription Only Medicine, patients require a prescription. 

To be classified as Category 1, cannabidiol must comprise 98% or more of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine. Any other cannabinoids found in the medicine (with the exception of cannabidiol) must be naturally found in cannabis and equal to 2% or less of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine. The medicine must not contain any other active ingredients

Category 2: CBD Dominant Medicinal Cannabis Product (CBD >60% and <98%) 

Medicinal cannabis products included in Category 2 are Schedule 8 Controlled Drugs (aka Schedule 8 Poison). Schedule 8 Controlled Drugs are medicines with strict legislative controls, including opioid analgesics. 

To be classified as Category 2, cannabidiol derived from cannabis must comprise between 60-98% of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine, and other cannabinoids (such as THC) derived from cannabis must comprise the remaining cannabinoid content of the medicine. The medicine must not contain any other active ingredients. 

Category 3: Balanced Medicinal Cannabis Product (CBD <60% and >40%) 

Medicinal cannabis products included in Category 3 are Schedule 8 Controlled Drugs. 

To be classified as Category 3, cannabidiol must comprise between 40-60% of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine. Other cannabinoids (including THC) must comprise the remaining cannabinoid content of the medicine, and the medicine must not contain any other active ingredients. 

Category 4: THC Dominant Medicinal Cannabis Product (THC 60-98%) 

Medicinal cannabis products included in Category 4 are Schedule 8 Controlled Drugs. 

To be classified as Category 4, other cannabinoids (including THC) must comprise between 60-98% of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine. Cannabidiol derived from cannabis must comprise between 2-40% of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine, and the medicine must not contain any other active ingredients. 

Category 5: THC Medicinal Cannabis Product (THC >98%) 

Medicinal cannabis products included in Category 5 are Schedule 8 controlled drugs. 

To be classified as Category 5, cannabinoids (other than CBD) in the medicine are only those naturally found in cannabis. They must comprise 98% or more of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine, and CBD must comprise less than 2% of the total cannabinoid content of the medicine. The medicine must not contain any other active ingredients. 

What Is a Product-Agnostic Clinic? 

A product-agnostic clinic is one that provides recommendations and guidance on all legally available medicinal cannabis treatments. Doctors at product-agnostic clinics have the freedom to prescribe the medication that they think is best of the patient, without being incentivised or restricted to prescribing a certain medication or brand. 

With clinics that are not product-agnostic, patients may only have access to a limited range of medications that may not be an appropriate fit.

A product-agnostic clinic will focus on evaluating the patient’s medical history, current condition and needs, in order to create a completely personalised treatment plan. This plan may include various different forms of medicinal cannabis from a range of different manufacturers, suppliers, and brands. 

The Importance of Receiving Treatment From a Product-Agnostic Clinic

Your care should be at the forefront of your care provider's mind, and you should have access to bias-free recommendations and products. 

When searching for a medicinal cannabis clinic that’s right for you, we recommend looking for a product-agnostic clinic that provides: 

Unbiased Recommendations 

Clinics that prioritise patient health and well-being over promoting specific products are more likely to deliver unbiased recommendations to their patients. Recommendations should be based on the patient’s medical condition, research, and the clinical expertise of the prescribing doctor, rather than financial incentives from specific cannabis product manufacturers. 

Access to Experts

A 2019 survey of Australian GPs showed that a large portion of Australian doctors felt uneducated about medicinal cannabis access pathways, available cannabis products, and the evidence supporting the prescription of medicinal cannabis. 

Access to a Wide Range of Products and Brands

At product-agnostic clinics, doctors don’t have vested interests in promoting specific products or brands. This means that you receive unbiased treatment recommendations that are based solely on your needs and enables you to access any medical cannabis treatments that are available in Australia. 

Personalised Care Plans and Patient-Centric Care 

No two patients are the same. As such, it’s important that your doctor understands that different patients may respond differently to different medicinal cannabis products. A clinic that is product-agnostic will tailor a highly personalised treatment plan that suits your individual needs – not offer you a one-size-fits all plan or product. 

Evidence-Based Approach to Treatment 

A trustworthy clinic will rely on the latest scientific research and studies to guide their recommendations and prescriptions, not their allegiance with a particular brand or manufacturer. Studies show that access to current research, resources, and guides may assist in optimal clinical decision-making and beneficial patient-healthcare practitioner discussions. This approach works to ensure that patients are receiving evidence-based treatments that are more likely to be effective. 

Transparent Pricing

Any reputable clinic should believe in full transparency when it comes to their pricing.

What are cannabinoids? 

Cannabinoids are a diverse array of ‘cannabis-like’ molecules, including phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids. Cannabinoids can be found within our bodies, within plants (especially cannabis plants) and can be synthesised in laboratory settings. The main cannabinoids you’ll hear about are likely to be CBD and THC, which are phytocannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. But, there is growing evidence to suggest that minor cannabinoids – alongside other cannabis compounds – may play an equally important part in the therapeutic benefits of your medicinal cannabis treatment.

There are 3 types of cannabinoids:

1. Phytocannabinoids – ‘Phyto’ meaning plant-derived, these are cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant (and many other plants).

2. Endocannabinoids – ‘Endo’ meaning internal, these are naturally occurring cannabinoids found in the human brain and bodily organs.

3. Synthetic cannabinoids – cannabinoids synthesised by chemists to mimic the actions of phytocannabinoids or to influence the body’s endocannabinoid levels.

Let’s first look at the main two types of cannabinoids you’ll encounter, endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids:

Endocannabinoids

Endocannabinoids (or endogenous cannabinoids) are naturally occurring cannabinoids found in the brain and body. They are lipid signalling molecules which exist to mediate our normal physiological functions. This means they bind to a protein target (in this case, a cannabinoid receptor) to create specific cellular responses in the body, such as stimulating appetite. Endocannabinoids may have evolved in the brain to maintain biological harmony while also playing a role in neuronal plasticity (how the brain adapts to change).¹

The two major endocannabinoids that have been discovered are:

• Anandamide (AEA) (ananda is the Sanskrit word for bliss)
• 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG)

Both of these endocannabinoids help our internal functions run smoothly, and a healthy human body produces them as needed. When there is a deficiency or imbalance in our endocannabinoid production, then we may need to look at external ways to upregulate our endocannabinoid levels.

Endocannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors (which both endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids interact with) and enzymes are the three components which make up the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS is the molecular system located throughout our brains and bodies which helps regulate our immune responses, cell communication, sleep, pain, appetite, hormone levels, metabolism, memory, and more. 

Learn more about the ECS here.

Phytocannabinoids

Phytocannabinoids are cannabinoids derived from the cannabis plant which can also be found in other plants, including cloves, carrots and broccoli, in smaller quantities. Research has found that the cannabis plant produces between 80 and 100 cannabinoids and about 300 non-cannabinoid chemicals.² Like endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids also interact with our endocannabinoid system and cannabinoid receptors to produce certain effects within the brain and body.

The two most well-known cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Both CBD and THC as well as numerous other cannabinoids are used in medicinal cannabis for their therapeutic potential. We’ll explore some of these cannabinoids and their properties below.

What do cannabinoids do? 

Both endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system (ECS) to produce varying effects. Each of us – whether we consume cannabis or not – has an ECS which helps regulate and balance many processes in the body.

The endocannabinoid system is made up of:

1. Endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids)
2. Cannabinoid receptors
3. Enzymes responsible for the synthesis and degradation of the endocannabinoids 

Unlike the nervous system or cardiovascular system, the endocannabinoid system is not an isolated structural system located in a specific region of the body. Instead, the ECS is a receptor system broadly distributed throughout the body which is acted upon by cannabinoids and enzymes. Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors can be found throughout the brain, organs, connective tissues, glands, and immune cells.
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Endocannabinoids and the ECS

A typical endocannabinoid system function works when the body’s naturally produced endocannabinoids (which are present in various organs and tissues) become active by binding with a cannabinoid receptor (also located all throughout the body) to regulate a bodily function, such as digestion or sleep. Essentially, when a system or function in the body is out of balance, receptors bind to cannabinoids to help correct the problem. Once the endocannabinoid system brings the body back into balance, enzymes will break down the cannabinoids to prevent overcorrecting the problem.
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Phytocannabinoids and the ECS

Much like endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids (which have a similar chemical structure to our endocannabinoids) also interact with our ECS and cannabinoid receptors to produce varying effects. When taken under the guidance of a prescribing doctor, phytocannabinoids like CBD, THC and more also have the potential to aid internal processes, mediate physiological functions and create balance within the body.
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Learn more about the endocannabinoid system and how cannabinoids like THC, CBD and CBN interact with it here.

‍‍‍‍Effects of phytocannabinoids 

Different phytocannabinoids (or combinations of cannabinoids and other cannabis compounds such as terpenes) create different effects in the mind and body, depending on how they’re used and who is using them. Some cannabinoids, like THC, are psychoactive, meaning they have an effect on the mind and can cause changes in mood, awareness, feelings, thoughts and behaviour. Psychoactive cannabinoids can be impairing for a period of time after use. Other cannabinoids, like CBD, do not produce psychoactive effects, meaning they are not likely to impact cognitive abilities like driving or memory recall.

Cannabinoids have a range of studied therapeutic benefits, from nausea and pain relief³ to anti-inflammatory⁴ and anxiolytic (anxiety relieving) capabilities⁵. In Australia, cannabinoid medicines have been prescribed to treat the symptoms of a range of chronic conditions, including anxiety, chronic pain and endometriosis. 

Continue reading to learn more about some of the main phytocannabinoids found in cannabis.

‍Types of cannabinoids in cannabis

The cannabis plant contains over 400 distinct compounds, between 80 and 100 of which are cannabinoids. Each cannabinoid has its own unique properties, many of which are still being uncovered by researchers. CBD and THC are the two major cannabinoids that you’ll probably hear about the most, but there is growing evidence to support the therapeutic effects of minor cannabinoids such as CBG and CBN. In fact, many of the proposed medical benefits originally thought to arise from CBD may actually be attributed to minor cannabinoids.⁶

Let’s look at four of the main cannabinoids you might find in cannabis and cannabinoid medicines:

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is one of the main phytocannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. THC is a psychoactive cannabinoid which gives the ‘high’ sensation commonly associated with cannabis use. THC works directly with the ECS by binding with CB1 receptors in the brain, and may help relieve symptoms of pain while reducing chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, increasing appetite, improving sleep and more in some patients. 

Learn more about how THC interacts with the ECS here.

Cannabidiol (CBD)

Cannabidiol (CBD) is another of the most abundant in the long list of cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. Unlike THC, CBD is non-impairing and won't bring on a feeling of being ‘high.’ This is because CBD does not bind with the CB1 receptor which creates the high sensation. Instead, CBD  works indirectly with the endocannabinoid system to interact with our opioid, dopamine, and serotonin receptors, giving it the potential to provide pain relief, depression and anxiety while boosting the immune system and helping with addiction. 

Learn more about how CBD interacts with the ECS here.

Cannabinol (CBN) 

Cannabinol (CBN) is a cannabinoid known to have anticonvulsant, sedative, and other pharmacological activities⁷ that are still being explored. CBN is created during the breakdown of the psychoactive cannabinoid THC⁸. Like THC, CBN also binds to the CB1 receptor, but at a much lower strength than THC. This technically makes it a psychoactive compound, but it doesn’t produce much of a ‘high’ sensation. CBN has a stronger affinity towards the CB2 receptors, which are mostly associated with immune system regulation.⁹

Cannabigerol (CBG)

Cannabigerol (CBG) is an active, non-intoxicating minor cannabinoid found in cannabis. CBG can work synergistically with CBD to mitigate the ‘high’ produced by THC while also helping to compound each cannabinoid’s therapeutic effects, depending on the ratios of each cannabinoid present. Studies indicate that CBG may have therapeutic potential in treating the symptoms of some neurological disorders and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as having antibacterial activity.¹⁰

Synthetic cannabinoids

Synthetic cannabinoids are cannabinoids that have been synthesised to mimic the actions of phytocannabinoids or influence the body’s endocannabinoid levels. Like naturally occurring cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids act on the cannabinoid receptors in the body to produce certain effects. The more accurate term for these compounds is ‘synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists’ (SCRAs).

While some synthetic cannabinoids (SCRAs) have been developed for medicinal use with a prescription, synthetic cannabis products obtained without a prescription are both prohibited and unregulated in Australia. These ‘synthetic cannabis’ products often have stronger and more negative effects (that are not caused by natural cannabis) and greater health risks than their prescribed or natural counterparts.¹¹

Some of the serious adverse effects seen with non-prescription synthetic cannabinoids include:

• fast and irregular heartbeat
• psychosis
• aggressive and violent behaviour
• chest pain
• vomiting
• raised blood pressure (hypertension)
• breathing difficulties
• hyperthermia (overheating)
• breakdown of muscle tissue (rhabdomyolysis)
• acute kidney injury
• seizures
• stroke
• death.¹²,¹³

Synthetic cannabinoids are usually mixed with solvents and sprayed onto herbs to be sold in colourful, branded packets. Although the contents may be described as ‘herbal’, the actual psychoactive material in these products is synthetic, and not all ingredients or their correct amounts are likely to be listed. On top of this, chemicals usually vary significantly from batch to batch, so different packets can produce different effects, even when the packaging looks the same. All of these factors can contribute to the risk of overdosing on synthetic cannabis products.

Using cannabinoids safely 

The only way to ensure you’re getting the therapeutic benefits and cannabinoid content you need from your cannabis is to get a prescription from a licensed healthcare professional. Cannabinoids can cause unwanted side effects in some people at certain doses, particularly when consumed via illegal cannabis products which are not regulated for safety, quality or ingredients (learn more about legal v. illegal cannabis here) and which often contain high levels of the cannabinoid THC. While there have not been any reported deaths in teens and adults resulting solely from cannabis use or cannabis toxicity, synthetic cannabinoids obtained without a prescription are known to be dangerous and can even cause death. 

CBD is generally well tolerated as a cannabinoid and is non-impairing, even at high doses.¹⁴ On the other hand, THC can induce the ‘high’ feeling associated with cannabis, and can be impairing or sedating in some people at certain doses. Because of this, THC is more likely to cause unwanted side effects like anxiety, confusion, dizziness, slower reaction times and increased heart rate at high doses. In rare cases and at high doses it can also cause hallucinations, paranoia, psychosis, panic attacks, nausea and vomiting.¹⁵ There may also be a link between heavy recreational cannabis use and some psychiatric disorders –  with recent research suggesting that smoking high-potency cannabis each day could increase the chances of developing psychosis by nearly five times compared to people who have never used the drug.¹⁶

Available evidence suggests that the following guidelines may help users reduce or avoid cannabis use-related health risks:¹⁷,¹⁸

1. Abstain from cannabis if it is not required to treat a medical condition, especially if you are in a higher risk group for cannabis related health problems
2. Avoid using THC-containing cannabis treatments if you have angina or a history of myocardial infarction, or a personal or family history of schizophrenia or psychotic disorders
3. Avoid early age initiation of cannabis use (particularly before the age of 16) unless benefits clearly outweigh the risks
4. Choose low-potency or balanced THC-to-CBD ratio cannabis treatments, or CBD only treatments (if appropriate for your condition)
5. Abstain from using synthetic cannabinoids
6. Avoid combustion cannabis methods (instead opt for other non smoking consumption methods)
7. Start with a low dose and slowly titrate up to your ideal dose under the guidance of your doctor
8. Do not use cannabis if you are taking any medications which are known to interact poorly with cannabis (always check with your doctor)
9. Carefully monitor any side effects and interactions with other prescription medications that you experience when taking cannabis
10. Abstain from cannabis use while pregnant

It’s important to note that driving with any amount of THC in your system is currently illegal in Australia (in every state except Tasmania) due to its potential to impair cognitive functions needed for safe driving. Always follow the dosing and administration guidelines provided to you by your doctor and monitor your symptoms and any side effects when starting a new treatment or changing your dose.

For more information on cannabinoids, visit The Caregiver's Guide to Medicinal Cannabis.

Learn more about the differences between illegal and legal cannabis in Australia here.

FAQs

Are terpenes cannabinoids? 

Like cannabinoids, terpenes are one of the numerous chemical compounds found within the cannabis plant which have therapeutic potential, but they are not considered cannabinoids. Terpenes are organic, aromatic compounds found in plants in the form of oils. Essentially, they are what gives a plant its unique flavour and aroma. But beyond just influencing the cannabis plant’s unique taste and smell, terpenes also play a significant role in the therapeutic effects of cannabis by interacting with cannabinoids and other cannabis compounds to create subtle differences in our experience.

Learn more about terpenes here.

Are cannabinoids addictive? 

Cannabis is known to have a low to moderate risk of dependence that is significantly lower than alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, and prescription drugs like morphine and opioid medicines.¹⁹ But there is still some potential for a dependence to develop, particularly in non-prescription users and those taking high concentrations of THC. 

In 2018, a report from the World Health Organisation found that the cannabinoid CBD exhibits no effects indicative of any abuse or dependence potential in humans and stated that to date ‘there is no evidence of public health related problems associated with the use of pure CBD.’²⁰ In fact, evidence suggests that CBD can mitigate the unwanted effects of THC and shows potential in treating symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, cancer, psychosis, Parkinson's disease, and other serious conditions. It is therefore highly unlikely that CBD is an addictive cannabinoid.

THC, on the other hand, may have the capacity to create dependence in some users. Studies show that the risk of recreational cannabis dependence is more common with high strength THC cannabis strains with a low CBD content (which are often bred illegally for this purpose), large amounts consumed, high frequency use (heavy, daily) and with starting use early in adolescence.²¹ Currently, there is very limited research looking at whether there is an association between medicinal THC and dependence, so more research is needed. With the support of a, you should be able to find a treatment plan and dose that works for you while reducing the risk of dependence.

Taking tolerance breaks can reduce the amount of THC you need to feel the therapeutic benefits of your medicine and reduce the risk of dependence. Talk to your prescribing doctor if you believe you are experiencing any signs or symptoms of cannabis dependence.

Learn more about tolerance breaks here.

Chronic cannabis use can lead to what is known as Cannabis Use Disorder. Cannabis Use Disorder is categorised by a problematic pattern of cannabis use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress. This might look like taking larger amounts of cannabis over a longer period than intended, neglecting work, social or other obligations due to cannabis use, developing a tolerance or experiencing withdrawals to cannabis, experiencing strong cravings to use cannabis and more.²² Talk to your doctor if you are concerned about or believe you are showing signs of Cannabis Use Disorder. 
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How many different cannabinoids are there? 

The cannabis plant produces between 80 and 100 phytocannabinoids. In addition to CBD and THC, some of these include:

• THC-acid (THCA)
• CBD-acid (CBDA)
• Cannabigerol (CBG)
• Cannabigerolic acid (CBGA)
• Cannabichromene (CBC)
• Cannabichromenolic acid (CBCA)
• Cannabichromevarin (CBCV)
• Cannabichromevarinolic acid (CBCVA)
• Cannabidivarin (CBDV)
• Cannabidivarinolic acid (CBDVA), and
• Cannabinol (CBN)
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Do all cannabinoids get you high?

No. Not all cannabinoids are intoxicating and therefore will not produce the ‘high’ sensation that is most commonly associated with THC. This is because each cannabinoid has unique properties and interacts with the endocannabinoid system in varying ways. Cannabinoids (like THC) which interact with the CB1 receptor in our ECS are more likely to produce a psychoactive or intoxicating effect, however not all cannabinoids which interact with the CB1 receptor will produce a strong ‘high’ feeling.

Learn more about the endocannabinoid system here.

It is common for cannabis (aka marijuana) products and treatments in the prescription and non-prescription market (which is currently illegal in Australia) to be broken up into three distinct groups: indica, sativa, and hybrid. Many patients and consumers still use these classifications to predict the effects their cannabis will have, but how accurate are they?

In this article, we’ll explore these three different strain types and the new ways patients, consumers and those in the medicinal cannabis industry are classifying their cannabis.

The history of indica and sativa 

Cannabis is believed to have originated in Central Asia and to have migrated to almost every continent across all reaches of the planet, adapting to various climates in the process. These adaptations coupled with the selective breeding of cannabis by cultivators led to variations in cannabis that became known as landrace strains, which are each named after their region of origin.

Many of these landrace strains were collected from their native habitats and brought to the Western world, where they were crossbred with one another in horticultural attempts to explore the plant’s potential. This process of hybridisation has given rise to the thousands of named cannabis varieties consumed across the world today.

You may have heard the terms ‘indica’ and ‘sativa’ as well as ‘hybrid’ in discussions around cannabis strains. Indicas and sativas came from the original landrace strains mentioned above and are known for their distinctive effects on the user. 

In 1753, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (known as the ‘father of modern taxonomy’) published Species Plantarum, a book listing every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera. Linnaeus classified all cannabis plants under one group, ‘Cannabis sativa L.,’ with ‘Cannabis’ as the genus, ‘sativa’ as the species, and ‘L.’ indicating Linnaeus’ system. ‘Sativa’ comes from the Latin ‘sativum,’ meaning ‘cultivated.’¹ 

Later, in 1785, French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck became the first person to classify the differences between two distinct species of the plant: Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa. Lamarck’s classifications were based on the physical characteristics of the different plants, and his own experience when testing them. ‘Cannabis sativa’ was found to be a taller, slimmer, and more fibrous plant, while ‘Cannabis indica,’ was found to be shorter, wider, and possessing greater psychoactive properties. The name Indica means ‘from India,’ which is where the plant was thought to originate. 

Today, these definitions have endured. These are the three main types of 'strains' of cannabis you may have encountered:

• Indica
• Sativa
• Hybrid (a cross between both sativa and indica strains)

We’ll explore each of these strains below.

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What is indica?  

Typically known for their relaxing properties, Indica strains originally grew in cold, northern climates. They grew shorter and stockier because of these environments, with a shorter life cycle that allowed them to be harvested before the colder weather hit.  

Indica origin 

• Cannabis indica is native to Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, and Turkey. 

Plant properties:

• Indica plants are shorter and stockier than sativa plants with bushy greenery and broad, dark green leaves. Indicas grow faster than sativa plants, and also produce more flowers (buds).

Cannabinoid balance: 

• Indica strains tend to have higher levels of CBD than sativa strains, but the THC content isn’t always less.

Most commonly associated effects 

• Based on anecdotal feedback, Indica strains tend to be associated with a relaxing, sedating effect, which may assist with anxiety symptoms and sleep issues.

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What is sativa?  

Known for their uplifting, stimulating effects, Sativa strains are found primarily in hot, dry climates.

Sativa origin:  

• Sativa strains are indigenous to warmer parts of the world, such as Eastern Asia and Central and South America.

Plant properties:

• Sativa plants are taller and slimmer than indicas, with thin, light green leaves. As they can exceed 3m in height, Cannabis sativa plants typically take much longer to mature than indicas.

Cannabinoid balance: 

• Sativa strains tend to have a lower ratio of CBD to THC than Indicas.

Most commonly associated effects: 

• Based on anecdotal feedback, cannabis sativa is known for its stimulating effects. It is often said to produce a 'mind high' that may increase creativity and focus and reduce anxiety.

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How to recognise differences between indica and sativa

Nowadays, instead of indica and sativa strains, most cannabis strains are hybrid strains, a combination of both (we'll unpack this more below). Therefore it doesn't really make sense to compare indica vs sativa when it comes to therapeutic effects. Where the two different cannabis strains do differ distinctly is in appearance.

• Sativa plant – skinny, light green leaves on a tall, slim plant
• Indica plant – short, bushy plants with broad, dark green leaves

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What is hybrid cannabis? 

Cannabis growers are constantly producing new and unique strains from different combinations of indica- and sativa-descended parent plants, and these are known as hybrid cannabis strains. Often grown to target specific medical use cases, hybrid cannabis plants can deliver a wide range of varying effects. Hybrids are typically grown on farms or in greenhouses from a combination of sativa and indica strains, each with unique ratios of THC to CBD.

Due to the long history of cross breeding cannabis, research suggests that strains with pure indica or pure sativa strains are rare today.² This means that most 'Indica strains' and 'Sativa strains' are actually hybrid strains, with genetics inherited from both types.

What are the main effects of hybrids? 

Hybrids are typically classified as indica-dominant, sativa-dominant, or balanced. This means that the effects of a hybrid strain will depend on whether it has more indica or sativa in its lineage, and (more importantly) its cannabinoid and terpene content. Hybrids are typically grown to elicit specific medicinal and other effects, such as reducing anxiety and depression, delivering pain relief, and more.

Changes to how we describe strains: 

Today, research suggests that years of crossbreeding has likely hybridised sativa and indica strains to the point that most of the cannabis consumed today is a combination of the two species’ lineages.

But if sativa, indica and hybrid strain classifications don't matter as much anymore, what does?

Many in the industry now prefer to classify cannabis as fitting more or less within these categories, defined by the level of major cannabinoids CBD and THC, also known as chemotypes:

• Type I: High THC (more than 0.3% THC and less than 0.5% CBD)
• Type II: THC/CBD (high contents of both CBD and THC)
• Type III: High CBD (less than 0.3% THC)

But even more importantly – we are increasingly seeing the value that terpenes, minor cannabinoids (such as CBG and CBN), flavonoids and other compounds have in the therapeutic potential of cannabis strains.

Early research tells us that a whole plant approach to cannabinoid therapies which takes full advantage of the cannabinoid content (beyond THC and CBD) and terpene profile of the cannabis plant may be the most effective way to meet its healing potential.³,⁴

Cannabinoid makeup 

• Research has found that the cannabis plant produces between 80 and 100 cannabinoids and about 300 non-cannabinoid chemicals.⁵
• Cannabinoids are naturally occurring components responsible for producing many of the effects of cannabis by interacting with our endocannabinoid systems.
• Knowing which cannabinoids and ratios of cannabinoids like THC and CBD (and many more) are present in your cannabis treatments is one of the best ways to predict the effects it will have on you and your symptoms.
• Learn more about some of the different types of cannabinoids and what they do here.

Terpenes 

• Terpenes are the organic, aromatic compounds found in plants in the form of oils. Essentially, they are what gives a plant its unique flavour and aroma. 
• Terpenes are responsible for the aromatic diversity of the wide range of strains and cultivars available.
• Beyond just influencing the cannabis plant’s unique taste and smell, terpenes also play a significant role in the therapeutic effects of cannabis by interacting with cannabinoids and other cannabis compounds to create subtle differences in our experience.
• Learn more about different terpenes and their effects here.

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What is Cannabis ruderalis? 

Cannabis ruderalis is a third type of cannabis strain which contains low quantities of cannabinoids. It isn’t widely used because it isn’t known to produce any potent effects.

Ruderalis origin:  

• Ruderalis plants are found in more extreme environments than other strains, such as those in Eastern Europe, Himalayan regions of India, Siberia, and Russia. Like indica plants, ruderalis grows quickly, having adapted to cold, low-sunlight environments.

Plant properties:

• Ruderalis are small, bushy plants which rarely grow taller than 30 centimetres, but they grow rapidly and can be ready for harvest in little more than a month from the time of planting.

Cannabinoid balance: 

• Ruderalis typically contains very little THC and somewhat higher amounts of CBD, but it does not contain enough of either cannabinoid to produce any noticeable effects.

Most commonly associated effects: 

• Because of its low potency and cannabinoid content, ruderalis isn’t typically used for medicinal or recreational purposes on its own. It may, however, be bred with other cannabis types because it is affordable and yields large quantities.

Which strain is right for me? 

The best way to find the strain that works for you and your symptoms is to get a valid prescription from a licensed healthcare professional. A doctor who is well versed in medicinal cannabis and cannabinoid medicines will be able to find a treatment type that works for you, while taking all of your individual needs as well as available strain types, cannabinoid and terpene content, formats, and delivery methods into consideration. 

It’s important to note that cannabis grown or obtained without a prescription is illegal in all states in Australia, except the ACT. And, because non-prescription cannabis is unregulated in Australia, it is highly likely that your therapeutic needs won’t be met by the cannabis you purchase without a prescription. Learn more about illegal v. legal cannabis in Australia here. A medicinal cannabis prescription from a qualified doctor is the best way to ensure the safety, quality, efficacy and cannabinoid and terpene content of your cannabis medicines for optimum results.

FAQs ‍

Should I smoke indica for anxiety?

While indica strains are most commonly associated with relaxing effects, there is little evidence to suggest that this is due to their strain-type alone. In fact, research now suggests that most strains are hybrid, containing both indica and sativa lineages. The plant compounds, cannabinoids and terpenes are the best indicators for the effects your cannabis will have on symptoms like anxiety. If you are looking to reduce anxiety, an expert doctor can help you find a cannabis treatment with the right cannabinoid and terpene content for you and your symptoms.

Smoking is not supported by the TGA, and comes with a long list of health risks. Learn about some of the other methods available for consuming medicinal cannabis to get the most out of your treatments here.‍

What is stronger indica or sativa? 

In terms of their intoxicating or psychoactive effects, sativa strains are said to be ‘stronger’ than indica strains because of their high THC content. THC is a psychoactive, intoxicating cannabinoid which produces the ‘high’ commonly associated with cannabis use, and it can be impairing and cause adverse side effects at higher doses. Want to know how long cannabis' stay in your system? Read our 'How long does cannabis stay in your system?' article to find out more.

What happens if you mix indica and sativa strains?

If you take different strains of cannabis together at the same time, you will alter the effects of your cannabis – much like a hybridised strain. If you are prescribed two different strains or types of cannabinoid medicines, your doctor will likely have prescribed the specific strains for varying, specific uses, or to take at different times in the day. Talk to your doctor about the best time to take them and whether they are safe to be taken together or close together. 

Experimenting with or taking too much of either of your cannabis strains could result in negative effects, so it’s best to only consume your cannabinoid medicines as advised by your doctor.

What are terpenes? 

Terpenes (pronounced tur-peens) are the organic, aromatic compounds found in plants in the form of oils. Essentially, they are what gives a plant its unique flavour and aroma. When it comes to cannabis plants, terpenes are contained in the trichomes of female cannabis plants in the form of sticky resin glands. Cannabis plants contain more than 150 types of terpenes, each responsible for the aromatic diversity of the wide range of cannabis cultivars and strains available. 

Until recently, much of the cannabis industry has been focused almost solely on the therapeutic qualities of cannabinoids like THC and CBD. But, as our knowledge of terpenes continues to grow and cannabis science expands, it’s becoming increasingly apparent that these aromatic compounds are medicinal powerhouses in their own right. Beyond just influencing the cannabis plant’s unique taste and smell, terpenes play a significant role in the therapeutic effects of cannabis by interacting with cannabinoids and other cannabis compounds to create subtle differences in our experience.

It all comes down to synergy. That is, multiple elements of cannabis working together to amplify each individual element’s effect. This allows for the overall effect of the plant to be greater than the sum of its individual parts (this phenomenon is known as the ‘entourage effect’¹). When cannabinoids like THC and CBD are paired with other cannabis compounds such as terpenes (or certain concentrations of them) they create or emphasise particular medicinal or other types of effects, opening up a world of therapeutic combinations and medicinal purposes that researchers are beginning to explore.

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What do terpenes do? (Terpene effects)

Throughout history, humans have been harnessing the wide range of aromas and properties of terpenes for various purposes, including medicinal. Different terpenes have different effects on the mind and body, with potential capabilities ranging from antibacterial and antifungal to anticancer and pain relieving², to name a few. The potential medicinal properties of these aromatic compounds and the way terpenes interact with your endocannabinoid system are still being explored and we hope to see more medical research in the near future.

Ever used the scent of lavender to help you drift off to sleep? You have the terpene linalool to thank for that effect! Studies have shown that linalool aids sedation and relaxation while reducing aggression and hostility. Does the smell of citrus have an uplifting effect on your mood? That’s thanks to the terpene limonene, which is known as a natural antidepressant (among its many other medicinal properties)².

These are just some of the potential therapeutic effects and benefits of terpenes, many of which can be found in cannabis treatments:

• Antiviral: there are a number of terpenes which demonstrate antiviral capabilities, including beta-pinene and limonene⁴, as well as caryophyllene, camphor, and carvone⁵.
• Antidepressant: 25% of modern-day antidepressant drugs are formulated using herbal extracts that contain terpenes, including linalool and beta-pinene².
• Pain relieving: like some cannabinoids, terpenes including humulene, geraniol, linalool, and β-pinene are capable of activating the body’s CB1 receptors (a component of the endocannabinoid system which influences pain perception). One 2021 study combined these terpenes with cannabinoids and found the pain-relieving effects of the cannabinoids to be amplified without an increase in negative side effects. These findings support the entourage effect theory mentioned earlier⁶.
• Anticancer: terpenes like limonene (which may have significant anticancer and antitumor properties⁷), as well as pinene, camphor, terpinene, and beta-myrcene may help inhibit the activity or growth of cancer cells⁸.
• Antimicrobial: terpenes like alpha-bisabolol, geraniol, menthol, eucalyptol, and terpinolene may display antimicrobial activity⁹ which could help in stopping the progression of harmful microorganisms.

Much more research is needed (especially in humans) to uncover the full therapeutic potential of terpenes¹⁰. But preliminary research on medicinal properties and a longstanding history of terpenes being used in traditional medicine indicates that these compounds may have powerful health benefits yet to be explored.

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Do terpenes make you high? 

Terpenes found in cannabis plants aren’t intoxicating on their own, and they won’t make you feel high in the way that the cannabinoid THC might. However, some terpenes are still considered to be psychoactive because they have an effect on the brain (such as making you feel relaxed, uplifted, or less anxious). 

While cannabis terpenes won’t get you high on their own, these aromatic compounds may still alter the effects of intoxicating cannabinoids like THC. THC is the cannabinoid responsible for the high feeling many experience with cannabis use. Some people believe that different combinations of cannabinoids and terpenes may alter and even mitigate the undesirable effects that some THC users experience, like anxiety and intoxication. There is also some evidence that terpenes enhance the existing therapeutic properties of cannabinoids – such as pain relieving⁶ and antidepressant² effects – when they are taken together.

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How do terpenes differ from cannabinoids (THC & CBD)?

Cannabinoids and terpenes are both organic compounds found in cannabis plants – and both have varying effects on the mind and body – but terpenes are not cannabinoids. Let’s explore the differences between the two:

Cannabinoids

• Cannabinoids are a diverse array of molecules found within the cannabis plant, some other plants, and the human body. 
• Phytocannabinoids like THC and CBD are the most common you’ll hear about, and both are found within the cannabis plant. They are largely responsible for the effects you experience when you consume cannabis, including psychoactive, therapeutic and other effects. 
• Cannabinoids interact with the endocannabinoid system in varying ways to produce effects within the mind and body.
• Cannabinoids are heavily regulated in Australia and require a prescription in most cases.
• Cannabinoids like THC are capable of producing an intoxicating effect on the user.

Terpenes

• Terpenes are also organic compounds found within the cannabis plant, but with different effects and properties to cannabinoids. 
• Terpenes influence the aroma and flavour of cannabis (alongside Volatile Sulphur Compounds (VSCs)¹¹) while cannabinoids do not. 
• Terpenes are found in abundance in almost all plants, while cannabinoids exist mainly in cannabis and a small number of other plants (like black pepper). 
• Terpenes are widely available and used in a range of household products in Australia, like perfumes, medicines, cosmetics and cleaning products.
• Some terpenes may interact with the endocannabinoid system (though not as strongly as cannabinoids), but more research is needed in this area⁶. 
• Terpenes can be psychoactive, but are unlikely to produce an intoxicating effect or ‘high’ on the user that is commonly associated with THC.

Curious about the difference between THC and CBD? Head to our ‘THC VS CBD' article to find out more.

How do terpenes influence our experience of medical cannabis?

Cannabis terpenes affect our experience of medicinal cannabis in a number of ways – depending on the types, concentrations and combinations of terpenes in the flower, the cannabinoids and other compounds present, and the individual patient consuming the cannabis. Terpenes range dramatically in aroma, with varying smells often being associated with certain medicinal or psychoactive effects. These aromatic compounds are highly bioactive, and interact with different receptors in the body – including our endocannabinoid receptors – to produce varying effects.

Lavender, for example, which contains the terpene linalool (which is also found in many cannabis strains) is known for its calming effects. This means that linalool-rich strains of cannabis are likely to have a calming, pain-relieving effect greater than what would be achieved with isolated cannabinoids or a strain with a different terpene profile. The terpene limonene – found in the oils of citrus plants – is associated with bright, uplifting and energy-boosting effects. This means that a limonene-rich strain of cannabis would be more likely to elevate a patient’s mood beyond what cannabinoids are capable of achieving on their own. 

Mounting scientific evidence suggests that terpenes play a considerable role in not only modulating the intoxicating effects of THC, but also working in synergy with other cannabinoids to potentially increase their therapeutic value. A 2018 review of CBD treatments for epilepsy found that patients with epilepsy who took full-spectrum CBD extract – including cannabinoids and terpenes – experienced improved symptoms and fewer side effects than those who took CBD isolate, which contains only cannabinoids¹².

So, if a medical cannabis treatment is selected for a patient based on THC or cannabinoid content alone, then that patient is likely being robbed of the full therapeutic experience and potential of their cannabis treatment. Not only will they miss out on the rich and distinct scents and flavours of the cannabis strain, but they will also miss out on the range of additional medicinal benefits that can only be experienced through a strain’s specific terpene profile. That’s why it’s so important to speak with a qualified doctor who understands the complexities of medical cannabis treatments.

Most commonly known cannabis terpenes

There are many different types of terpenes present in the oils of plants, each producing different smells and tastes as well as effects on the humans and animals who consume them. The cannabis plant alone contains more than 150 terpenes which each contribute to the plant’s therapeutic qualities and potential health benefits. 

Here are just some of the most commonly known terpenes you might find in your medicinal cannabis treatments and in other plants:

Caryophyllene 

• Found in: Black Pepper, Cloves, Cotton
• Aromas: Pepper, Wood, Spice, Herbal
• Potential uses: Pain relief, Anti-inflammatory, Anxiety, Depression + more
  

Limonene

• Found in: Lemon, Fruit Rinds, Juniper
• Aromas: Citrus, Lemon, Orange
• Potential uses: Digestion, Anti-bacterial, Stress relief
  

Farnesene

• Found in: Chamomile, Rose, Potatoes
• Aromas: Sandalwood, Floral, Wood
• Potential uses: Anti-inflammatory, Anti-allergy, Muscle relaxant
  

Humulene

• Found in: Sage, Ginseng, Hops
• Aromas: Earth, Wood, Spice
• Potential uses: Anti-inflammatory, Antibacterial, Appetite-suppressing
  

Myrcene

• Found in: Mango, Thyme, Lemongrass
• Aromas: Musk, Earth, Citrus
• Potential uses: Anti-inflammatory, Relaxing, Pain relief
  

Terpinolene

• Found in: Lilac, Sage, Rosemary
• Aromas: Floral, Herbal, Pine
• Potential uses: Antibacterial, Anxiety, Insomnia

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Are terpenes good or bad for you? 

Whether a terpene is good or bad for you depends on the plant it is found in and how it is being used. Terpenes themselves are legal and are not classed as a drug on any prohibited drug list. They exist in almost any plant (including herbs, fruits, vegetables and flowers) that you can find in your garden or at your local grocery store, such as lemons, rosemary and mangoes. They also exist in other plants, such as non-edible and toxic plants in the wild. 

In their pure, concentrated forms, terpenes can cause unwanted side effects like dizziness and irritation when consumed, inhaled or topically applied. This is why essential oils that have not been diluted should not be ingested or applied directly onto the skin¹³.

In diluted form (5% or less), terpenes are non-toxic and safe to use.

Are terpenes safe in cannabis? 

Cannabis medicines are highly regulated in Australia for safety, cannabinoid and terpene content, quality and efficacy. Any terpenes found in these treatments have been deemed safe (and even beneficial!) for human consumption. Terpenes are not known to be addictive.

Talk to your doctor if you have any concerns about terpenes in your medicinal cannabis treatments, including any potential allergies or sensitivities. 

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Do all medicinal cannabis treatments contain terpenes?

Unfortunately, not all medicinal cannabis treatments contain terpenes. And for those treatments that do contain terpenes, not all suppliers measure terpene content from batch to batch or place an emphasis on maintaining the plant’s terpene profile in production. This has the potential to lead to inconsistencies in the effects of those treatments from batch to batch. 

While medical cannabis products that use the full plant or whole flower contain the original terpene profiles of the plant, full-spectrum and broad-spectrum medical cannabis treatment (which also contain terpenes) may have reduced terpene profiles due to the extraction methods used to produce them. Isolates do not contain terpenes, however some isolate treatments may have a terpene or terpene blend added back in (that is not from the original plant) – these are known as terpsolates.

There are many variables that can affect the amount of terpenes found in cannabis strains. Environmental factors such as light exposure, temperature, whether the plant is grown outdoors or indoors, growth methods, nutrient levels, and harvest practices can all influence terpene levels. Because many terpenes are volatile compounds that easily evaporate, they are at risk of being lost during standard cannabis extraction processes. But thanks to more in depth cannabis research and growing awareness of the therapeutic benefits of terpenes - and the potential health benefits of the 'entourage effect' - is leading to more sensitive extraction and production methods to help maintain the cannabis plant’s terpene profile.

Talking to your doctor about terpenes 

Just like cannabinoids, your doctor can help you choose an appropriate medicinal cannabis treatment based on its terpene profile and the effects these terpenes may have on your specific symptoms or condition. Terpenes may contribute to the overall effect of the cannabis cultivar  – i.e. whether it is sedative, calming, uplifting, or euphoric – or they might have individual medicinal benefits that are suited to your condition – such as being anti-inflammatory or a digestive aid. Also, terpenes affect the taste of your medical cannabis treatment, and there may be certain ones you prefer – just like if you were selecting a tea or coffee.

If you're looking to reap all of the health benefits native to the cannabis plant through your medical cannabis treatment, talk to your prescribing doctor about available cannabis treatments that incorporate a diverse terpene profile and an array of other compounds.

For more information on terpenes, visit the Caregiver's Guide to Medicinal Cannabis.

FAQ: 

How long do terpenes last?

Once a cannabis plant has been picked, all of its properties, including cannabinoids and terpenes, begin to degrade. Proper storage methods are the only way to maintain the quality and efficacy of your cannabis plant and its therapeutic properties over time. 

Terpenes are found on the trichomes of the cannabis plant. These are the tiny, glandular appendages on the surface of cannabis flowers. Maintaining terpenes within the cannabis plant can be done by ensuring the trichomes are stored correctly and that damage is minimised. 

To avoid the evaporation of terpenes as well as the oxidation and breakage of terpene-containing trichomes, adequate humidity control should be prioritised in cannabis storage. Maintaining a 55-65% relative humidity (RH) range minimises the loss of these aromatic compounds in cannabis. As well as an airtight container, an ideal RH range can be achieved by using a terpene shield, which is included in some medicinal cannabis flower products sold in Australia. Talk to your doctor about terpene-containing cannabis treatments and terpene preservation.

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Are terpenes legal in Australia? 

Terpenes are legal and widely available not only in plants, but in a range of household products including cosmetics, cleaning products, medications, perfumes, essential oils and more.

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Do terpenes show up on drug tests? 

Terpenes are not classed as a drug on any prohibited drug list and are therefore not tested for in drug tests. Drug tests in Australia are generally measuring for presence of the cannabinoid THC. Learn more about the different types of cannabis drug tests here.

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Can you vape terpenes? 

Terpenes are found in many cannabis treatments, including cannabis flower. So, yes, they can be vaped if they are present within the cannabis treatment you have been prescribed to vape with an approved vaporiser.

Head to our ‘Ultimate guide to vaping cannabis’ for more.

Before there was medicine, there were plants.

For as long as humans have existed, we have turned to plants to nourish, heal and fuel our bodies. For much of human history, possessing knowledge of plants and their healing properties – or having access to someone with this knowledge – could often mean the difference between life and death. Much like other animals, humankind’s initial interactions with medicinal plants were based solely on instinct and experience as people sought relief from their injuries and illnesses. In time, this allowed for more established understandings of plants – including their medicinal uses and benefits – to emerge. Much of this knowledge has been passed down through generations in the form of oral and written records, healing traditions and cultural practises – often in the face of great hardship. Forced migration, colonisation, invasions and Euro-centric ideas about what defined ‘medicine’ and who should practise it led to the erasure, suppression and exploitation of healing practitioners and herbal medicines across the world – some of which endures today.

While herbal medicine has largely been surpassed by pharmaceutical drugs (a significant number of which are derived from plants) in modern medicine, there is a vast amount of established and ongoing research that supports existing Indigenous, traditional and folk knowledge about the use of plants for therapeutic and medicinal purposes. ‍

Earliest known records

While written records of natural therapies like poppy, thyme, caraway and cannabis can be traced back as far as the emergence of the earliest known form of writing by the Sumerians in 3000 BCE, archaeological excavations indicate that the practise of herbal medicine dates back at least as far as 60,000 years ago. Remains of opium poppies, ephedra, cannabis and other plants known to have medicinal properties found in Palaeolithic burial sites indicate early understandings of natural therapies among humans in this period, which were likely inherited from earlier generations and passed down to inform subsequent herbalism practises over time.‍

Medicinal cannabis

Few other plants can claim a history as enduring and closely tied to the human condition as the cannabis plant. Used as a herbal remedy, food and resource with greatly documented influence in medicine, ceremony and religion among civilisations throughout human history – cannabis is one of the oldest medicines on record.

Since its earliest known usage, the cannabis plant’s cultivation and use for medicinal purposes has been recorded in ancient and modern societies across Asia, Europe, the Middle East and beyond. Now scientifically-backed for its pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory abilities as well as its effectiveness in relieving the symptoms of various conditions like epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease and depression – the cannabis plant is slowly shedding its stigma and making its way into the mainstream medicine conversation.

Today, medicinal cannabis refers to the range of legal, approved and quality assured preparations of the cannabis plant and its cannabinoids for therapeutic use.

Natural therapies today

It is estimated today that at least 80% of the world’s population is using or relying upon herbs for basic healthcare needs. This is in spite of conventional medicine’s history of challenging and suppressing herbal medicine as a viable and effective practise. A resurgence of the mainstream use of herbs as medicine seems to have occurred in recent years out of growing dissatisfaction with chemical drugs and their side effects, with scientific research increasingly supporting existing understandings of the healing benefits of plants. It is no longer uncommon for a conventional health practitioner to suggest herbal and plant-based medicines as part of a treatment plan, nor is it unusual to seek out holistic or natural alternatives to conventional treatments for minor ailments. While increasing use of plant-based medicines comes with its own issues – such as overexploitation of traditional plants and medicines – their benefits when sourced responsibly and prescribed by a licensed practitioner can be expansive.